Martin Luther's Antisemitism
Radical, Reformer, Father of Modern Anti-Semitism, and An Inspiration for Deniers of the Holocaust
by J. A.
A student essay from Dr. Elliot Neaman's History 210 class (historical methods - spring 2001)
© Elliot Neaman / PHDNReproduction interdite par quelque moyen que ce soit / no reproduction allowed
Martin Luther is considered to be one of the greatest theologians of all time. He was the leader of the Protestant Reformation and a great intellectual and reformer in the eyes of many modern day Christians. The common consensus is that Martin Luther, disgusted at the corruption of the Catholic Church, wanted to change everything for the better by bringing religion closer to the people, rather than just using priests to dictate everything. This is one perspective of Luther, but there is another side to the man that is much more accurate and unsettling that explains the effects that the offsprings of Lutheranism have had on the post-renaissance world. Luther was intolerant, sexist, racist, and very anti-Semitic. Luther wrote many essays that openly condemned Jews for “their blindness and arrogance” which he called “solid as an iron mountain,”[1] especially within “The Jews and their Lies.” These anti-Semitic beliefs would soon propel a whole new movement against the Jews of Europe during the Reformation period which would soon eventually evolve into the genocidal ideals behind the Holocaust, and also manifest itself within the agendas of Neo-Nazis and Holocaust deniers.
There is a majority of modern Protestants that denounce Martin Luther’s anti-Semitic writing. Norma Cunningham, a person who went to Luther elementary school and then to Washington University talked about how not only she became skeptical of fundamental Lutheran dogma, but she would also discover about the crude aspects of his lifestyle that involved not only anti-Semitism but drinking, unkemptness, and sexism. She also condemns the ministers and clergy she knew within the Lutheran church she belonged to for “impressing its bias on naive, ingenuous, and credulous youth.”[2] Like most people growing up, Cunningham is one of the many people that is eager to find out the truth about what goes on behind the veil of Dogma and Scripture within the Church. However people who are right wing and openly anti-Semitic also use Luther as a tool for expressing their anti-Semitism.
One website known as Jerry’s Aryan Battle Page[3] proudly lists birth dates of various people who contributed to the Aryan and anti-Semitic cause, including Adolf Hitler, Joseph McCarthy, Henry Ford, and Martin Luther. Even more disturbing is the summary that the webmaster of this page has Martin Luther’s own essay On the Jews and Their Lies which he himself admits to saying that the writing itself has been edited to excise “the usual derogatory comments and footnotes that Jews and their apologists often put in.” The webmaster talks more about how this is an “accurate summary of Jewish thought and behavior” and how “it is likely that Western Civilization would not be in danger, today, of collapsing from the predatory gains of international Zionism.”[4] Obviously modern anti-Semitism is not only using the aid of Martin Luther’s own anti-Semitic teachings to further its cause but it is also using the Internet to spread his beliefs along with the interpretations of it by the anti-Semites themselves. The same person who maintains the web page even goes to such ridiculous extremes as to interpret passages about racial conflict within Robert Heinlein’s science fiction novel Starship Troopers and C.S. Lewis’ The Chronicles of Narnia as examples of artistic evidence to back up the anti-Semitic and white supremacist beliefs of the webmaster and his followers. The person remarking about the Narnia story, specifically an excerpt from Chapter Three of The Last Battle, calls a certain story as “a parody of the hidden Jewish power over the governments of Europe and America.”[5] Obviously the webmaster is taking these fictional stories out of context to an extreme degree, but with an essay like Martin Luther’s On the Jews and Their Lies, the anti-Semites can use that book as a great source for their own agenda. However it is important that we first take a look at how Martin Luther grew to be such a devout Jew-hater and how his writings also fit in with the anti-Semitic culture of Europe and how he was trying to contribute to it.
Martin Luther imagined a Europe, especially Germany, where Christianity could be practiced freely in its purest form with accessibility to many people. There were however three major flaws within European society that hindered the progress of Christian teachings in Luther’s view, and these threats were ”Jews, popes, and Turks.” In fact, Luther and others felt that these three “terrors” were to bring an apocalyptic end to humanity, especially since Muslims and Jews were considered to be foreign influences that threatened the unity of Europe.[6] Christian responses to these problems could manifest itself either as tolerance or violence, but still there was an agenda on behalf of the Christians that wanted to convert the Jews and other heretics into the Christian faith that was constructed during the Reformation. Jews had fallen victim to the intolerance of the Catholic Church before with the inquisitions of the period before and during the Reformation where the general goal was to expel Jews or force them to convert by using torturous methods. Nationalistic pride always accompanied the push for “cleansing” a state as in the case of Spain and Portugal after they reconquered the Iberian peninsula. European nationalism was finding its roots within the end of the medieval period and the Reformation, and it would prove to be a movement that would grow with each decade and century, and whether this nationalism was for Spain or the German states, or for when Germany would unite itself in the late Nineteenth century, a scapegoat would be needed to fuel this native fervor to make these emerging state models into ethnically clean and pristine examples for a strong and effective nation. Since Jews were spread throughout the whole continent they would prove to be a target of governments and populations all throughout Europe, and the problem would become one that would be unanimously agreed among European nationalists as an epidemic, and Martin Luther was one major scholar that recognized this.
Martin Luther’s judeophobia has been an interesting historical and theological case because Luther himself in the early years of his fight against the Catholic Church was quite tolerant of the Jews and their beliefs since he recognized them as part of Jesus Christ’s lineage, even though he still had the motive of converting them to the Christian faith. The document that Martin Luther wrote about acceptance of the Jews was a pamphlet called Jesus Christ Was Born a Jew. It states in a surprisingly anti-prejudiced tone that “If the Apostles, who were also Jews, had dealt with us Gentiles as we Gentiles deal with the Jews there would have never been a Christian among the Gentiles.”[7] This 1523 statement gives us an image of Martin Luther as a more tolerant and rational man that many Protestants want to believe that Martin Luther was, and indeed he did have very level-headed opinions during his early years as a theologian and a reformer. Approximately twenty years later, Martin Luther would contradict his calm approach towards the understanding of the Jews of Europe with extreme prejudice and hatred.
Twenty years as a reformer would take its toll on Luther’s opinions and thoughts, forming him into a very reactionary and conservative man that would transform his ideology into one that was very similar to the ideas of the Catholic Church that he fought against in his youth. Instead of using rationality, he uses stereotypes to describe the attributes of all Jews across Europe, using the same old slurs that common Europeans used to express their hatred of them. These stereotypes would include the Jew as being a greedy moneygrubber that was gluttonous, rude, unkempt and unsanitary, and also a bad influence on traditional European morals. After thoroughly stressing the idea that Jews were materialist ungratefuls of society, Luther would also advocate violent action against Jews which involved destroying Jewish property, writings, and the also restriction of their rights as citizens. These statements of overt hatred towards Jewish customs and fundamental beliefs by Martin Luther would serve as a new model of anti-Semitism that would inspire other people that hated Jews to start up pogroms and other organized mobs that would be used to wreck Jewish property and harm Jews themselves. The teachings of protestant Christianity and the use of violent anti-Semitism would start up a new period of religious fanaticism that was caused by the many competing Christian offspring religions created during the Reformation which would create new religious tensions that would define many ethnic and theological conflicts across Europe.[8] The power of Luther’s words and his intentions proves that there was a radical change in his general approach towards his theological work as he aged.
It would be not sufficient enough to consider senility a factor in Luther’s change of heart because this switch from pro to anti-Semitic was obviously a calculated decision on Luther’s behalf. Obviously Luther was a man with many missions, and one of them was to convert as many people as he could towards the side of his religion, the Reformist Protestant Church. Luther was different from other theologians at the time since he was advocating against the major religious institution of Europe, the Roman Catholic Church, and he wanted to present himself as a reformer since the majority of theologians within the Chruch would not even dare to go against a force as strong as the Church itself. Still, Luther still was a man of God, and he wanted to spread the word of God but with a method that was different from the current missionary styles of the Catholic Church. Like many Catholics, Luther still felt that anyone, no matter what faith they believed in, could be converted to accept the word of Jesus Christ and the laws of the Christian God, including the Jewish people. Idealism was a quality that Luther held in high esteem along with realism and he had a very positive attitude towards converting Jews towards the Christian faith, but when he experienced the many difficulties of trying to convince the Jews, Turks, or other gentiles of the validity of Christ, Luther would lose the idealism that invigorated him during his youth and fall into the more conservative and intolerant attitude as he aged.
What convinced Luther of the vile nature of the Jews would not only be the stereotypes of their habits, but also of their stubborn behavior which he generalized of them. One word that Luther particularly likes to use to summarize Jews is by calling them “blind,” “stupid,” or “Fools.”[9] From his viewpoint, Luther felt that Jews were people that did nothing but wallow in their own sinful methods and suck in other people with their ideals by quoting from Luke 6:39 which states that "When a blind man leads a blind man, both will fall into the pit."[10] Like many intellectuals, Martin Luther had a flawed approach that had at best unrealistic goals, because core beliefs are something that cannot be changed within a lifetime, and Martin Luther’s optimistic idealism would just cause him to face reality and react to it in an unproductive manner. Not only would his anti-Semitic views expose his grotesque side, especially with his fondness of calling women “broodmares” and an appreciation of flatulent humor, his crude stereotypes and violent recommendations towards chastising the Jews would cause other Protestant believers to start institutionalizing reactionary measures against Jewish property and beliefs for centuries to come. One period where the influences of Martin Luther’s anti-Semitism would play an important role in violence against Jews would be during the Nazi dominance of German government from 1932 to 1945, and within the prejudiced and later genocidal policies of Adolf Hitler.
Luther’s contributions towards the Protestant Reformation would not only create a religious revolution, but a heightened sense of nationalism within the German states.[11] The ideal of the German state would become a reality in 1871 when Germany was united with the help of Otto Von Bismark. Awareness all over the new nation of the importance of keeping the state together after its birth would become a dominating issue in the twentieth century. There would be many forces within Germany that would try and define what truly made the German. When World War I came and went, Germany would face a crisis regarding the well-being and unity of its state along with a Depression and general humiliation after being defeated by the allied powers and forced to agree to the unfair Versailles Treaty reparations. The German people would blame not only the victors of the war for their suffering, but also upon the elements within German society that were contributing to its downfall, including races that did not fit into the white German majority. One group that would come under great scrutiny and prejudice from the racial profilers of the German state would be the Jews, and these people who would carry on a new age of anti-Jewish persecution and violence were people who followed the doctrines of Martin Luther’s anti-Semitism. The one major group that would raise anti-Semitism to a level never seen before in history while aided by Luther’s suggestions on the Jews would be the Nazi party.
Hitler himself would laud Martin Luther’s anti-Semitic opinions and at the same time hail him as one of the leading heroes of the German people. The similarities between Luther’s recommendations of violent action against Jews and the exploits of the SA and the Kristallnacht incident of 1938 were eerily similar, thus leading closer to the fact that Hitler and his fellow anti-Semitic supporters were inspired by Luther’s writings. Luther’s On the Jews and Their Lies would clearly state an intention to set fire to synagogues, which the Nazi sponsored SA would gladly do in the 1938 Kristallnacht. Also Luther’s plan for the destruction of Jewish residences and the rounding up of Jews and their placement within stables would foreshadow of the events within the late 1930s and early 40s where Nazis would destroy Jewish private property and gather them up in cattle cars and ship them off to concentration camps. Martin Luther himself stated that this method would remind the Jews “that they are but miserable captives.” Then Luther would go on to call upon the removal of their books writings, and right to teach within society.
The Nazis would have mass book burnings in where thousands of books on Jewish culture or works written by Jews would be burned and also the events after the Nuremberg laws of September 1935 would remove Jews from any high position in society, including teaching.[12] The events of the Kristallnacht also took place on Martin Luther’s birthday, November 10th. A prominent Protestant clergy member Bishop Martin Sasse would publish a compendium of Luther’s anti-Jewish writings after the Kritallnacht incident and would personally address him as “the greatest anti-Semite of his time” while urging people to follow Luther’s words on the Jews carefully.[13] The anti-Semitic exploits of the Nazi party and the German people that willingly involved themselves within it had very close ties to Luther’s own Jew-hating works, and the Nazis would use them as a helpful tool in the huge propaganda machine they had created to promote the pure Aryan ideal they held for Germany. The Protestant Church itself was the strongest religious force in the German state and the people within the Protestant and also Catholic Church that sided with Luther’s anti-Semitic arguments would join the Nazi cause or extol it. Clergymen would never question the eliminationist policy in Germany throughout the 1930s and the war period.[14]
The attitudes of the Nazis and the German people towards the Jews were not something that just appeared during the rise of the Nazi party, but instead it was always an issue that intensified once Germany became an actual unified state. After Luther’s death, the Jews would find themselves victimized by Germans, as in the incident that occurred within Berlin and Brandenburg Province during 1593 where Jews were asked either to baptize or leave.[15] This incident was during the time when German versus Jew was still a religious matter, but there was a tinge of racial attitudes within the conflict that tended to manifest itself in the violence of the people. Anti-Semitism would evolve into more nationalistic-inspired forms of hatred later on.
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries would see a decline of Protestant and German anti-Semitism and absolutist regimes during the Enlightenment period, especially since capitalism and religious tolerance became popular ideas across Europe.[16] In fact, when the Jewish community was brutally attacked and expelled from Frankfort in 1614, they would be re-welcomed to the city two years later and the man that organized the violence, Vincent Fettmilch, would be executed and the city was fined as well for allowing the carnage to happen.[17] In the nineteenth century, anti-Semitism would take on a new form that allowed it to spread among the intellectual population. Social Darwinism, Nationalism, and conservatives were all linked towards giving reasons for Jew bashing a scientific explanation rather than just a religious one. Now Jews were prosecuted for being different racially and in turn were considered to be untrustworthy subject of a nation since it was believed that they would pledge loyalty to any country rather than a specific nation.[18] The word “anti-Semite”, created in 1873 by Wilhelm Marr itself is a product of the shift from thinking about Jews in a religious sense towards the notion of the Jews as a race and ideology.[19] A publication within Prussia known as the Kreuzzeitung was a conservative and Protestant newspaper that blamed German financial problems on banker’s policies done by Jews.[20] Organizations such as the German Anti-Semitic Alliance would rise and rapidly grain popularity within German society. All across Europe, people began to treat the Jew as a cancerous threat to the gene pool of pure nations.
The whole cycle of the development of anti-Semitism, from Martin Luther’s inflammatory writings to the creation of the German nation state and the Nazi era have all given the German nation a reputation for a history of extreme prejudice against Jews. However Germany is not the only state guilty of anti-Semitism. Eastern Europe, particularly Russia, has been another land where Jews have faced extreme persecution. All these events of violent action against Jewish communities are not as widespread today as they used to be. There is no more Nazi party and the pogroms that devastated Jewish families are a thing of the past. Now however anti-Semitism is being justified through many intellectual, or more precisely psuedo-intellectual arguments. World conflicts today tend to make an effort to avoid violent confrontation and in return the enclaves of white supremacists and extreme right wing organizations constantly vie for the attention of the common people. Since intellectual arguments by scholars are often valued by many high-ranking members of modern social structures, a scholarly approach towards advocating anti-Semitic ideas can influence these people and sooner or later become inherent in the policies that they draft for society to follow. Since so many of these so-called “intellectuals” also tend to have white supremacist tendencies, they in return discuss and extol the values from one of the leading religious figures of the Anglo-Saxon world, Martin Luther.
Since the population of anti-Semites is so diverse, from Aryan nation extremists to the mildest historical revisionists, there are different views on Luther’s anti-Jewish monologues even within this unique community. Jerry’s Aryan Battle Page is one of the more notably direct approaches towards trying to prove the superiority of the white race and also takes psudeo-intellectual approaches towards verifying the validity and the moral virtues of the modern white struggle that so many white supremacists like to emphasize. The articles seen on the Institute of Historical Review website however do not blatantly state that they are fighting for a white cause, but they do appeal to a more broad demographic of people by analyzing historical events and facts. The intellectuals try to make their arguments sound as agenda-free as possible while the radical extremists on the web offer more interpretations than actual factual review. Even though the psudeo-intellectual revisionists do try their best to hide the flaws in their logic, the extremists are not as prone to doing so. Once article done by a contributor to the IHR website, Herman Otten, is a solid example of the interpretation of Christian and Lutheran teachings regarding historical revisionism, especially towards their perspective of the Jews.
At the beginning of his paper on trying to explain how Christians know truth from fantasy by interpreting the Bible, Otten says that the so called “tales” within the Bible are true tales, and he backs up his evidence by saying…
“Many have undertaken to plan and write a story of what has been done among us, just as we heard it from those who from the first became eyewitnesses and servants of the World. For this reason I too decided to check everything carefully from the beginning and to write it down in the proper order for you, excellent Theophilus, so that you too will be sure what you have heard is true.”[21]
And where does Otten get this quote from? He gets it from none other than the Bible; 2 Peter 1:16-21 from Dr. William Beck’s An American Translation of the Bible.[22] But how does Otten prove that the Bible is a valid source for factual information?
Otten is using only the bible as the one source for his truth. In the process he also argues that modern liberal beliefs dispel the notion that “doctrina divina” is based off of actual events. With a work that can be as vague and symbolic as the Bible, it is impossible to know if the stories within it are true. Theological scholars have been working for centuries to try and make meaning of what has been written down, plus the many revisions of the Bible that have been done by Catholicism and the many Christian sects offer mounds of interpretations that often change the original message of the versions of the scriptures that were written before. Biblical works can never be treated as historical truths because they are a compendium of stories illustrating the methods of practicing a moral lifestyle by taking real-life experiences emphasized by inserted fictional and extraordinary occurrences. To bring this argument back to Martin Luther’s influences, Otten quotes Martin Luther’s statement on truth…
“Martin Luther and other early Reformers had an intense desire to know and proclaim the truth in all areas. Luther, in his explanation of the Eighth Commandment: "Do not lie concerning your neighbor," noted: "We should fear and love God that we may not deceitfully belie, betray, slander, nor defame our neighbor, but defend him, speak well of him, and put the best construction on everything."”[23]
This statement is made even more ironic by not only Otten’s defense for the validity of the Bible as a historical source of actual events but here he is quoting the same Martin Luther that commits many of the sins of lying that he preaches here against the Jews.
Another issue that Otten raises in this essay is his defense of a Christian newsletter known as The Christian News. The publication was listed as an “Extreme-Right Publication” by the Anti-Defamation League, and Otten admits that he wrote a letter to the ADL of B’nai B’rith in New York City stating that The Christian News’s goal was to fight racism and itself had welcomed ethnically diverse church-goers. He also tries to prove that the arguments printed within the publication were unbiased. Just as some people use evidence within the Christian Bible to prove that the dogma within it is somewhat biased towards whites, Otten not only tries to debunk that notion but he also brings up the issue of the Talmud which he and other people say contain horrible things that the Jews said about Christians. The whole argument turns into a mud-slinging match that tries to prove which dogmatic writing is more discriminatory than the other. Then Otten writes a series of accounts where he and other fellow revisionists question many notable people and organizations that they are affiliated with about not only to prove if events within the Holocaust really happened, but also they intend to prove the hypocrisy of these people and the whole system that supports that the events of the Holocaust really did kill millions of Jews.
Otten is convinced that not only are there many lies that keep a Holocaust “myth” alive perpetrated by both clergymen and teachers alike, but he feels that he “as an Evangelical Lutheran pastor, in the tradition of the early church and the Reformation”[24] is trying to spread the truth. Martin Luther’s original anti-Semitic beliefs are countered by Otten’s mention of the Talmud’s anti-Christian tirades, and in return the essay that he wrote is just an obvious cover-up of the author’s own anti-Semitic slant, no matter how much he portrays himself to be a fair and just man that considers the viewpoints of all races and religions. Probably the biggest slip of his tongue, or his fingers, is when he writes up this opinion on the proposed Holocaust Memorial.
“While most Revisionists appear to be opposed to the construction of the Holocaust Museum in Washington, D.C., right next to some of our nation’s most cherished monuments, I say let it be built! One day it will serve as a monument to the stupidity of modern man, who can still accept a hoax as a fact. Hopefully it will then serve as a reminder to study all the facts and evidence and repudiate all hoaxes.”[25]
The argumentative style that Otten employs throughout his paper is an example of the merry-go-round form of debate where people try to prove that they are fair intellectuals but they end up contradicting and invalidating the evidence that they create. In Otten’s case, he is a man that wants to deny the obvious anti-Semitic writings of Luther while at the same time he is trying to portray his own mission by acting like a pastor of truth.
Even though Otten might be taking a different approach towards Luther’s writings on the Jews, it is nonetheless a method that is employed by historical revisionists that deny the Holocaust. Racism is a major social issue in the modern United States that sparks the emotions of many people trying to prevent racial conflict. Otten might not directly follow the teachings of Martin Luther, but he is part of a congregation that has been influenced by his writings, including his inflammatory On the Jews and their Lies. The webmaster of Jerry’s Aryan Battle Page however is an example of the blatant white supremacist approach towards discrediting and hatefully discriminating against Jews. Plus the knack the webmaster of the page for interpreting works of modern literature as “racial lesions” within books such as Robert Heinlein’s Starship Troopers and C.S. Lewis’ The Chronicles of Narnia shows that he directly appeals to the emotional side of the Revisionist movement as well as general white supremacy.
In the long run, the anti-Semitic events in Western civilization that have occurred from Martin Luther’s death to the rise of Holocaust revisionist and white supremacy material on the World Wide Web are influenced by Luther’s own hateful writings towards the Jews in the later part of his life. Luther’s diatribes against Jewry were also crucial elements towards the rise of anti-Semitism in Germany during the Nationalistic period of the late 19th Century and the establishment of the National Socialist regime in Germany during the 1930s and 40s. Psudeo-intellectual historical revisionists and Holocaust deniers hide their motives against Jews by trying to present intellectual arguments, and in the cases of some American Protestant clergymen such as Herman Otten, they try to push aside the anti-Jew writings and get into fights with Holocaust acknowledgers by throwing circular and unproductive arguments with Anti-Christian excerpts from Jewish dogmatic books such as the Talmud. Anti-Semitism might have evolved as both a Revisionist and a White-supremacist idea, but the original rants against the Jews that Luther wrote were the foundation of intellectual attempts to justify attacks against Jews, whether they are written as scholarly papers or as simple hate rhetoric.
Bibliography of Sources
Written
Fischer, Klaus P. The History of An Obsession: German Judeophobia and the Holocaust. New York: Continuum, 1998.
Goldhagen, Daniel. Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Vintage Press, 1997.
Grosser, Paul E., and Edwin G. Halperin. The Causes and Effects of Anti-Semitism: The Dimensions of a Prejudice. New York: Philosophical Library, 1978.
Oberman, Heiko A. The Roots of Anti-Semitism In the Age of Rennaissance and Reformation. Trans. Porter, James I. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984.
Electronic
Cunningham, Norma E. What They Never Told Us About Martin Luther. Jan./Feb. 1998 <http://www.ffrf.org/fttoday/jan_feb98/cunningham.html>
Otten, Herman. Christianity, Truth and Fantasy: The Holocaust, Historical Revisionism and Christians Today. <http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v09/v09p321_Otten.html>
Jerry’s Aryan Battle Page <http://www.jna.tzo.com/>
Medieval Sourcebook: Martin Luther (1483-1546): The Jews and Their Lies, excerpts (1543) <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/luther-jews.html>
Religion Quotes – Martin Luther. <http://www.atheism.about.com/religion/atheism/library/quotes/bl_q_MLuther.htm?rnk=r3&terms=Melanchton>
NOTES
[1] http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/luther-jews.html
The Jews and Their Lies[2] http://www.ffrf.org/fttoday/jan_feb98/cunningham.html
What They Never Told Us About Martin Luther[3] http://www.jna.tzo.com/
[4] All quotes taken from Jerry’s Aryan Battle Page
[5] http://www.jna.tzo.com/
[6] Oberman, The Roots of Anti-Semitism, Pg. 121
[7] Fischer, The History of an Obsession, Pg. 38.
[8] Fischer, The History of an Obsession, Pg. 39
[9] Medieval Sourcebook: Martin Luther (1483-1546): The Jews and Their Lies, excerpts (1543) http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/luther-jews.html
[10] Ibid.
[11] Grosser & Halperin, The Causes and Effects of Anti-Semitism, pg. 158
[12] All quotes taken from Martin Luther’s writings, as seen on http://www.atheism.about.com/religion/atheism/library/quotes/bl_q_MLuther.htm?rnk=r3&terms=Melanchton
[13] Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners, Pg. 111.
[14] Goldhagen Pg. 110.
[15] Grosser & Halperin Pg. 170
[16] Grosser and Halperin Pg. 175
[17] Ibid. Pg. 178.
[18] Ibid. 208-209.
[19] Ibid. Pg. 219
[20] Ibid. Pg. 220-221
[21] http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v09/v09p321_Otten.html
[22] Ibid.
[23] http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v09/v09p321_Otten.html
[24] http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v09/v09p321_Otten.html
[25] http://www.ihr.org/jhr/v09/v09p321_Otten.html